Counting References
You must have 85% of your references in your lit review less than 5 years old [some say 85% of your entire dissertation]. Highlight your references, Right Click, Numbering. Note the number. Now, go through and back space out each reference’s number that is older than [or the other way around] 5 years. Do the math. Use this method for numbering paragraphs in a long article as well. If you cannot find a reference, simply type whatever you know right into the Google search bar. We have about 95% luck finding missing sources this way. References….The Basics Keep this URL handy---http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource If in doubt…. http://www.apastyle.org/apa-style-help.aspx Sometimes, something is missing, such as when there is no identifiable author or no date. You can download a pdf chart (http://blog.apastyle.org/files/how-to-cite-something-you-found-on-a-website-in-apa-style---table-1.pdf) or (see Figure 1) that lists all the permutations of information that might occur with an online reference and shows how to adapt the reference.
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Alphabetize Your References
In Word 2010: File, Options, Customize Ribbon, All Commands, Sort Ascending [make a new tab where you want this, I recommend the Home tab], Add, Okay….. While you are in there, look around. (You can cut and paste into Excel, but it is easier to use Word.) Now, make certain you have your references formatted completely or unformatted completely--no hanging sections. Highlight, click on the Sort Ascending button and they are alphabetized. Listing Sources NO: (Big & Wide, 2006; Kool & Klean, 2007; Sad & Gloom, 2011; Çandy, 2012). Not in chronological order, but place them in the same order as they are found in the references—alphabetical. (Big & Wide, 2006; Çandy, 2012; Kool & Klean, 2007; Sad & Gloom, 2011). And and & And is used in text; the ampersand is used in parenthesis. The most important thing to remember---all sources in your paper must be in your references and all references must be in your paper. Remove any stragglers that are not in both places. To make this easier us the “find” button in Word to locate all of the sources in your paper. When writing, I recommend breaking the lit review into four parts:
1. Intro and conclusion statements; a. Intro-list key authors you used b. List key search terms you used c. List all the libraries and data bases you used d. Chapter 2 has a conclusion and a summary i. Conclusion: mention everything you wrote in the chapter:1-2 pages ii. Summary: a transition to the next chapter 2. Part 1. Historical perspective of your problem 7-10 pages a. Go back to where it began b. Trace the evolution forward c. About 5-7 pages 3. The Meat of Your Problem 7-10 pages a. What is happening b. Other research on the problem c. Other methodology used to delve into problem d. Similar but different research on problem 4. The catch-all portion 7-10 pages a. Alternate viewpoints b. Tie in your theoretical framework c. What do you expect to find Remember: Your sources must be 85% within 5 years of the day the dean signs your dissertation and 95% must be peer reviewed or books. Secondary sources are discouraged and some committee members will not allow them at all (no—as cited by). A question I often get asked is: Which abbreviation for sample is correct: capital N or small case n? The answer: Use a capital N when discussing the sample; use a small case n when discussing a sub-sample. Along this line, as a general rule, italicize letters (N—sample, df—degrees of freedom, etc.), but do not italicize words (Cronbach’s alpha, beta, chi-square, etc.). Therefore, it would be--Cohen's d. Do not italicize superscript numbers. Remember; do italicize a cliché, idiom, or key term (see blog entry “Quotation Marks,” 9/13/2013).
When creating a PowerPoint presentation, follow these seven rules for keeping visuals clear and powerful:
1. Follow the “Six-by-six rule”: Use no more than six words per line and no more than six lines per visual. 2. Apply the “billboard” test to each slide or transparency: “Could people read and understand the information while driving?” 3. Realize that people may forget lists, but they’ll recall images. Just don’t overdo the graphics. 4. Avoid using “chart junk,” fancy shadings and patterns in most drawing software. You’ll create the “Two C” effect—comical and confusing—by trying too hard to jazz up a chart. 5. Think “thin” when deciding on line thickness and “discreet” when picking colors. Reason: Thick lines and garish colors will distract readers. 6. Use the “one” principle: Limit each visual to one idea, one concept, or one point. 7. Put it to the one-minute test: If the audience will need more than 60 seconds to figure it out, it’s too complex. Unless they are direct quotations by your sources, do not place quotation marks around phrases.
• If the phrase is a direct quote, provide a page number in the citation. • If the phrase is a key term, set it in italics (APA 4.21). • If the phrase is a cliché or idiom, revise the sentence to more formal academic language. A general guideline is to use quotation marks with short pieces of work such as articles, poems, and chapters. Use italics for titles of longer works, such as books, plays, and films.
Use Quotation Marks: Article titles from magazines, newspapers, journals Book Chapters Essays Poems Short Stories Songs Specific episodes of radio programs Specific episodes of TV shows Specific pages within a website Use Italics: Aircraft Album titles Books Dance Performances Films/movie titles Journals Long Musical Compositions Magazines Newspapers Online databases Operas Paintings Pamphlets Plays Radio programs/broadcasts Sculptures Ships Spacecraft Television shows Websites Be certain to provide data regarding the reliability of someone else’s survey that you used in your dissertation. For example, Cronbach's (alpha) is a coefficient of internal consistency commonly used as an estimate of the reliability of a test or instrument. If possible, you should provide detail regarding the validity of someone else’s survey. For example, to ensure construct validity evidence would involve the empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. This type of validation includes statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including the relationships between responses to different test items. This could also include relationships between the test and measures of other constructs. For example: “In a study using Smith’s survey instrument, value of the Cronbach’s (alpha) coefficient was found to be a.b, verifying reliability of the instrument (XXX, date, p. yy).”
This section of the proposal is 2-3 paragraphs long. It clearly states the problem or research focus, the population affected, and how the study will contribute to solving the problem. This section of chapter 1 should be comprehensive yet simple, providing context for the research study.
A well-written problem statement begins with the big picture of the issue (macro) and works to the small, narrower and more specific problem (micro). It clearly communicates the significance, magnitude, and importance of the problem and transitions into the Purpose of the Study with a declarative statement such as “It is not known if and to what degree/extent...” or “It is not known how/why and…” Other examples are: It is not known_____ Absent from the literature ______ While the literature indicates ____________, it is not known in _________ (school/district/organization/community) if __________ It is not known how or to what extent ________________ As you are writing this section, make sure your research problem passes the ROC test - Researchable, Original, and Contributory! Tell your committee why this is important, serious, why something must be done! There are four [4] required parts: 1. The general problem is…. 2. The specific problem is…. 3. The methodology is …. 4. The population is… “The proposed qualitative, quantitative, mixed method, case study (select one) research design will….” If qualitative, tell me which –hermeneutic phenomenological, phenomenological, grounded theory, etc.; if quantitative, tell me how you are going to analyze your data--t-test, chi-square, MANOVA, etc. Tell me, “The proposed population will be…in this region….” This is the meat of your paper!! You are going to repeat this statement verbatim several times throughout your paper and your appendices. The purpose statement has seven [7] required parts:
1. Research method is identified as qual, quan, mixed, case. 2. Research method is appropriate to the proposed study. 3. Research design is clearly stated. 4. Research design is appropriate to the research method. 5. Research variables are briefly identified. 6. Specific population group of proposed study is identified. 7. Geographic location of study is identified. The Purpose of the Study section of chapter 1 should be 2-3 paragraphs long, provide a reflection of the problem statement, and identify how the study will be accomplished. This section explains how the proposed study will contribute to the field. The section begins with a declarative statement, "The purpose of this study is....” Included in this statement are also the research design, population, variables (quantitative) or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied, and the geographic location. Further, the section clearly defines the dependent and independent variables, relationship of variables, or comparison of groups for quantitative studies. For qualitative studies, this section describes the nature of the phenomena to be explored. Keep in mind that the purpose of the study is restated in other chapters of the dissertation and should be worded exactly as presented in this section of chapter 1. Creswell (2003) provided some sample templates for developing purpose statements aligned with the different research methods (qualitative/quantitative/mixed method). Creswell, J. W. (2003). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Do not inadvertently insult your participants. The following is from a Capella formal editor:
X “should be aware of the subject versus participant Controversy. In many past studies, humans were universally referred to as subjects (with its implications of subservience). Many believe that the term subject was used to separate that human connection when experimenting with human beings and that one is more likely to disassociate him or herself from someone thought of as a subject rather than a participant. Today, any person that signs a permission slip (or has someone sign on his or her behalf) should be referred to as a participant. However, conversion from using the term subject to participant has been met with some resistance.” Be certain you know the differences: The following is from a U of P formal editor:
X “needs to justify that each assumption was probably true, otherwise the study could be irrelevant. To assume, for example, that participants answered honestly, X can explain how the identities of participants were concealed and confidentiality was preserved. X “should review the scope, limitation, and delimitation sections. The scope is what the study covered and is closely connected to the specific problem framed. The limitations are the constraints that were beyond X’s control but could have affected the study outcome. X needs to explain how these constraints were dealt with. The delimitations were the conditions set by X including the sample size and the geographic area selected. X needs to explain how she controlled her own bias.” I will add, assumptions are the elements of a study that are often taken for granted. This section should list what is assumed to be true about the information gathered in the study. State the assumptions being accepted for the study as methodological, theoretical, or topic-specific. For each assumption listed, you must also provide an explanation. Provide a rationale for each assumption, incorporating multiple perspectives, when appropriate. A common committee criticism I see is the incorrect formatting of lists:
X “should check APA 6th formatting regarding seriation (formation of lists). Within a paragraph, items are listed using: (a), (b), (c), and so on. For example: The teachers identified three challenges: (a) teaching hungry children, (b) making do with outdated books, and (c) organizational bureaucracy. (See: APA style manual, pp.63-64, 3.04 Seriation). In a vertical list, numbers and periods are used. “Indent the numbers or bullets of all vertical lists one-half inch from the left margin (p. 15 of Capella’s Dissertation Format Guidelines). “For in-paragraph lists that are direct quotes in which the original author has used parenthetical numbers, replace the parenthetical numbers with bracketed letters. For example, if the original quote uses (1), (2), and (3), replace these with [a], [b], and [c]. See APA 6.08.” One of the most common committee criticisms I see is the use of vague references to time: currently, soon, still, lately, now, today, etc. This is a comment from a formal editor at Capella:
X “should remove vague references to time such as: recent, current, currently, now, today, etc. People’s perceptions of these words vary. Sometimes removing these adjectives makes the statement stronger. If a time reference is needed then some specific time frame should be stated.” Think about this: With any luck, your dissertation will still be used as research in 10 years. Imagine a doctoral candidate in 2023 trying to figure out what “lately” means. Exchange these vague references for a year or a century, for example: Instead of writing, “Lately, the industry has increased the production of widgets.” [substitute] “In the 21st century, the industry increased the production of widgets.” [or] “Since 2007, the industry has been increasing the production of widgets.” Remember, if your source is Jones (2005), you cannot say, “In 2013, the industry….” (Jones, 2005). You must always remember that you are confined by the date[s] of your references. The best you can do with Jones (2005), for example, would be to say, “In 2005, the industry started to increase the….” (Jones, 2005). • Odd page breaks and blank pages. Do not leave a blank page or a half-filled page of text in the middle of a chapter; don’t leave a short table/figure without text on the page.
• A dangling line. There must be at least two lines of a paragraph at the bottom or top of a page; in paragraph formatting, this is called widow/orphan control (click on Format > Paragraph > Line and Page Breaks > Pagination). • A dangling heading. Use a page break to keep a heading from dangling at the bottom of a page. A heading must be followed by at least two lines of text before the page break. Also make sure table titles and figure captions appear on the same page as the table or figure. • Inconsistency of spacing above headings. Make sure the space above headings is uniform; if you wish, add an extra space above headings to set off new topics on the page. • Inconsistency of spacing above and below figures and tables. An extra space above and below a table or figure will set it off from paragraphs or other tables/figures on the same page; make the spacing around tables/figures uniform from chapter to chapter. • Tables and figures in the margins. There must be no text or graphics in the margin areas of the page. For in-paragraph lists that are direct quotes in which the original author has used parenthetical numbers, replace the parenthetical numbers with bracketed letters. For example, if the original quote uses (1), (2), and (3), replace these with [a], [b], and [c]. See APA 6.08.
In your dissertation or thesis, when lead authors share a surname (for example, there are two different authors named Jones), include that author’s initials, ahead of the surname, in those text citations. See the example in APA 6.14.
According to the 6th edition of the APA : "Within a paragraph, when the name of the author is part of the narrative...you need not include the year in subsequent nonparenthetical references to a study as long as the study cannot be confused with other studies cited in the article. Do include the year in all parenthetical citations" (pg. 174).
Owl of Purdue states: “In other words, every time you bring up the author in a new paragraph, you should use the year, but you don’t have to within a paragraph, as long as it’s clear from your wording that you are discussing the same author. If you were giving a direct quotation that needed a parenthetical reference for the page number, then you’d include the year as well.” Remember, if you list the author in parenthesis, you must include the year. (APA 4.22-4.23).Provide the explanation of an abbreviation the first time a term appears. Thereafter, provide only the abbreviation in text and citations. However, do not include abbreviations in the References list.
Tables [in document and in Table of Content]: Capitalize the first word, all proper nouns, all major words, and words of four or more letters in titles .
Figures [in document and in Table of Content]: Capitalize only the first word and any proper nouns in figure captions (see APA 5.23 and Figure 5.8). |
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May 2014
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